1. Note from the Editor

Dear Bhagavatas,
We conclude our postings with Excerpts from Chapter 5 of "Hinduism Rediscovered" dealing with "Origin and Development of Hinduism"

Dasoham
Anbil Ramaswamy

2. Excerpts from CHAPTER 5 of "Hinduism Rediscovered"
ORIGIN & DEVELOPMENT OF HINDUISM

While tracing the origin and development of Hinduism, we come across two watershed periods.
1. The prehistoric period which history has assigned the nomenclature of the "mythological period" and
2. The historic period commencing from the Indus Valley findings to the present day.

This historic period itself can be considered under three time schedules:
(i) Challenges by materialism, Buddhism and Jainism (6c B.C.to 12c AD).
(ii) Challenges by Islam and Christianity (12c. AD to 18c AD).
(iii) Period of renaissance and developments ( in 19c AD and 20c AD)

SECTION 1 : PREHISTORIC PERSPECTIVE.( Upto 5 c B.C.)
We already saw that nobody knows the origin of Hinduism as such. The Vedas forming the bulwark of Hinduism are known to have existed even prior to the Vedic period. And, after each great deluge (Mahapralaya) God is believed to have remembered the texts of the Vedas exactly as they were before the deluge and taught them to the fourfaced Brahma. He in turn propounded the truths to the great Rishis who became aware by hearing and transformed them through oral communication to their pupils through the Guru-sishya-parampara.

VEDAS
It is believed that the earliest Vedas arranged by "VEDA VYASA" comprised of the RIGVEDA, SAMAVEDA, and YAJURVEDA. But, ATHARVAVEDA attributed to the sage ATHARVAN was a later addition to the `TRAYEE VIDYA' (referring to the earlier three).

SAMHITAS
The Vedas contained hymns of prayer and dealt with sacrifices to various elements of nature which were personified as Gods, chief among whom were -
Agni, vayu, arka, vageesa, varuna, indra, visvedeva, mitra, aryama, brihaspati, rurukrama, dyu and prithvi, the 8 vasus (ashtavasus) the 12 adityas ,the 11 rudras as detailed in Chapter on Sources of Knowledge. These divine powers (Devas) were supposed to come down from their abodes to receive the sacrificial offerings and in return shower their blessings each according to its own power so that life on earth could go on smoothly in a sort of quid-pro-quo

The `sacrifices' were believed to bestow powers on the `yajamana' the sacrificer), control over natural forces which he could bend to his advantage like a `genie', and therefore, sacrifices were deemed a means to an end viz, securing bliss. The sacrifices meant giving of oneself through which on attained spiritual satisfaction. The yaga or yagna, a sacrificial rite has four essential requirements viz., Dravya (sacrificial materials); tyaga ( the spirit of sacrificing something dear to one); devatha ( the deity) invoked for receiving the sacrificial offer and mantra ( the mystic chants that transfers the offers in the phenomenal world into spiritual material acceptable to the deity concerned).

There is also another dimension to it. The propensity to give is as natural to man as to receive or the need to feel worthy. It was more than a `quid-pro-quo'- a mutual arrangement by which man and nature respected each other in a spirit of `give and take'. In fact, the rites and sacrifices seemed to keep even the monsoons on schedule.

Two kinds of drinks are mentioned viz. `soma' and `sura'. Soma was offered to the Gods and drunk at sacrifices and its use was sanctified by religion. The Soma is akin to 'Amanita Muscaria-' a mushroom also known as' fly agaric' This is very much akin to the drink used by the Zorashtrians of Persia called "hoama" - a bitter herb without any inebriating effects. Sura on the other hand, was a `secular' drink obviously very potent and was disapproved by the priestly class.1

Talking about the rhythm of seasons and monsoons, an important concept is `Rita' which meant `orderly nature of events' such as the movement of planets, succession of seasons etc. Gods were believed to be in control of this 'order' had, therefore, to be placated with sacrifices. Gradually, sacrifices came to be regarded as the indispensable requirement to uphold not only the orderly movement of natural events but also the maintenance of moral mores of people's lives on earth. The Vedas were in the form of collection of hymns and, therefore, called `Samhitas'.

BRAHMANAS
A slight shift in emphasis could be noticed when the Brahmans were formed. Though the importance of the Nature Gods was not questioned, it was thought that the proper performance of the sacrifices itself could bring about the desired results. Therefore, great amount of care was enjoined in the procedural aspects of the sacrifices. The Brahmans constituted the handbooks or manuals for the guidance of the priestly class which was in sole charge of conducting the sacrificial rituals.

Together, the Vedas and Brahmans were known as Karma khanda because they laid stress on the `performance' aspect of the sacrifices.

The Srauta Sutras and Smritis which emerged to explain the Karma khanda were also in the same archaic language (may be for fear of distorting the originals). Also, they were composed in the form of Sutras or aphorisms or pithy sayings which themselves needed explanations and elucidation for a proper understanding of the Vedas and the Brahmanas but also the Sutras themselves. These commentaries are known as 'BASHYAMS' . Besides Bashyams, other aids for understanding the esoteric meanings were VRITTI- brief commentaries in the form of Aphorisms, TIPPANI- a less formal kind of notes explaining the meanings of words, VARTTIKA- a critical analysis and elaboration of Bashya, TIKKA- and VYAKHYANA- explanations in simpler language understandable by even lay people. The Brahma sutra or Vedanta Sutra, the most important of Sutras contains 4 Adhyayas ( Parts) each divided into 4 Padas ( Quarters) In 156 Adhikaranas (Chapters). It contains 545 Sutras (Aphorisms) composed by Sage BADARAYANA around 400 BC. As it deals with 'embodied souls' it is also called "Sareeraka Sutra"

ARANYAKAS
There were some sages dwelling in the forests who explained the Vedic scriptures to their pupils in the form of `Aranyakas' (Aranyaka means belonging to the forest) and they came to be known as `forest texts".

UPANISHADS
Other sages who did not retire to deep forests were dwelling in the cities or outskrits of the cities with their own `Gurukulas' (Abodes of Preceptors) where pupils flocked to learn the Vedic literature. Realizing the difficulties encountered in explaining the secret portions of the Vedic scriptures, the masters deliberated with their disciples in the form of `quiz-programmes - question and answer sessions in delineation of the eternal truths, theories, etc. in `confidential sessions' - engaged in exercises in 'Equivalencies' and these came to be known as Upanishads. The Upanishads are the most intelligible part of the Vedic literature so far as the modern man is concerned.

As we pass from the Vedic hymnal period to the Upanishadic period, we can notice a remarkable shift in emphasis from the objective to the subjective, from propitiation rites to philosophy, from wondering at the phenomenal world to an introspection on the significance of the self.

The `Aranyakas' and 'Upanishads' together came to be known as `Gnana khanda' as they were INTELLECTUAL DISPUTATIONS or Brahma khanda because they discerned that all the Vedic Gods were but facets of the superior force called `Brahman" (in neuter). Thus, a great breakthrough was spearheaded whereby a `Unity in diversity' was ushered in and Hinduism in spite of the multiplicity of Gods it venerated considered it the obeisance only to ONE SUPREME GOD, Brahman.

Thus, the Vedic period continued from time immemorial to the period when History took over based on archeology, numismatics, carbon dating and what not.

SECTION 2: EARLY HISTROIC PERIOD
The earliest historic period commenced from the findings of excavations in Mohanjadaro and Harappa. Modern Historians put forth several theories of origin of Hinduism as fanciful if not more than the Vedic literature were accused of.

One such theory holds that races moved from the Central Asian, Mideastern and may be Mediterranean regions comprising of the present Persian and Afghan countries. One of these branched into the region known to them as SINDHUS after breaking away from the other clans. Some claim that the ancestors of the various races lived in the region of 'UR' in Mesopotamia comprising present day Iran and therefore were called 'Urions' who on migration came to be known as 'Ariyans'. They seek to link 'Urions' or 'Ariyans' with Iranians. The nomads who remained without crossing over were mainly from Assyria and the Urions who were opposed to them called them 'Asuras'- a term used to denote demons. The Assyrians developed a hostile stance towards those who broke away and crossed over beyond the Himalayas in the region of the Indus river2

They coined the slogan `Sindukush' meaning `kill the sindus' referring to those who 'crossed the floor'. And, some historians believe that this `Sindu' came to be known as `Hindu'. Thus, `Hinduism' in the strictest sense is not the name of a RELIGION but the name of a REGION around the river Indus, the people of which observed certain religious beliefs and practices.

The Persians called this region as 'Hapta Hindhu' a word which appeared to refer to the term 'Sapta Sindhu '( seven rivers) occuring several times in the Rig Veda -an obvious reference to the river Sindu. It is believed that the Persians used 'h' for 's'; the Greeks who came subsequently dropped the 'h' also so that it came to be pronounced as 'Indu' or 'Indoi'. The word Indian is perhaps derived from the Greek term 'Indu' as aforesaid.

The `Hindus' who crossed over called themselves 'Aryans (white complexioned) and were believed to have subdued and dispersed the dark skinned Dravidians down to the South of the country. It is this Dravidian civilization that was said to have been unearthed by the findings of the Indus valley civilization. But, no conclusive proofs have been provided by historians to this day to substantiate these theories.

At best, we can only infer some idea of the beliefs and practices of a religion at the dawn of human species say, some 300,000 years before Christ, when no written records existed. Such records came into being only about 270 millennia thereafter.

Hinduism is like a river flowing through its way from small and distant tributaries through channels and branches that carry its floods until by the time it reaches and mingles with the ocean, it had become so forceful, intensive and extensive breaking all banks and barriers in a wild fury as to seem to have lost its moorings from its tiny and distant source.

SECTION 3 EARLY CHALLENGES EFFECTIVELY OVERCOME
The first challenge to Hinduism stemmed from within. Some `Kshatriya' (ruling) clans revolted against the lopsided importance given by the Aryans to the formulas and formalities formulated by the priestly classes for the performance of the sacrificial rituals.

The Charvakas (materialists), the Buddhists and Jains (-all hailing from the Kshatriya class) rebelled against Hinduism (which was equated with Brahminism), against sacrifices, against Vedic Gods. They held that more than Gods and sacrifices, it was 'right thought, right word and right deed' that brought the desired result. `Moksha' of the Hindus was termed as Nirvana by Buddhists. Between the Buddhists and Jains, the latter emphasized on `Ahimsa'( Non- violence) as the cardinal principle that should govern human conduct (i.e.) not harming any living being in thought, word or deed. These were appealing to the commonfolk who were excluded from the ritualistic performances (except perhaps in a peripheral way) - and even to the priestly classes whose exclusive privilege was the conduct of sacrifices. Slowly these ideas were accepted and incorporated into the mainstream of Hinduism.

The strange phenomenon is that these challenges to Hinduism appeared as REVOLT against the tenets of the religion, soon debilitated into RESISTANCE and finally ended up in RECONCILIATION with the original ideas they were SUPPOSED TO OPPOSE.

The enormous corpus of scriptural texts contained as it were myriad niches for manifold facets or infinite variety of strings of thought or shades of interpretations. Whenever a challenge arose, a strong wavelength of signals of user-friendly empathy issued forth from the appropriate quiver to COELESCE with the challenge ENERVATE and EMASCULATE it to the point of EXTINCTION or suck it into the vortex of the mainstream. There, the Protestant ideas underwent a treatment of syncretism and were made to function as indistinguishable and integral part of Hinduism itself.

Thus, Buddha who began as an ICONOCLAST ended up by being regarded as one more `avatar' in the Hindu pantheon and became an ICON himself - while Buddhism itself was blotted out of existence in the land of its birth.

Hinduism has never been afraid of opposition, for it never considered any different opinion as an opposition at all. It sucks into itself any opposing views interpreting them as supplementary or alternative points of view rather than as any real contradiction. Hinduism does not dismiss any view as wholly unworthy or repugnant or worthless.

The failure of CHARVAKA, BUDDHISM, & JAINISM was due to the fact all of them were born out of the Indian soil and were only off-shoots of Hinduism, some aspects of which they questioned while accepting all the rest. And, it was not, therefore, any difficult for the mainstream Hinduism to quote from Dharmasastras which had inbuilt in them the reformations suggested by these off-shoot ideologies - and to draw them back into its fold.

THUS, THE EMPHASIS SHIFTED IN HINDUISM ITSELF FROM GODS TO RITUALS, FROM RITUALS TO CONTEMPLATION, FROM CONTEMPLATION TO CODES OF CONDUCT - ABOUT WHICH A PLETHORA OF LITERATURE WAS AVAILABLE INTERNALLY.

While the Charvakas never made any impact on the highly religiously surcharged atmosphere, Jainism withstood though enfeebled beyond recognition. Even today, there are quite a number of Jains whose observances of the practices connected with `Ahimsa' is so METICULOUS as to provoke others to brand them as RIDICULOUS. And, as we mentioned earlier, Buddhism was totally obliterated from India - the land of its birth.

SECTION 4 : INCURSION OF ALIEN CREEDS
The second period of challenge arose when India was swept over by the Mohammedan and subsequently by the Muslim rulers and later on by the influx of Christianity when the Westerners `CAME TO TRADE BUT REMAINED TO RULE'.

They brought with them ideologies and practices so much at variance with what Hinduism had known so far traditionally - it indeed took a real effort on the part of Hinduism even to defend itself and preserve its own tenets against those of the invaders and the intruders. But, the great thinkers of the times were clever to discern similarities and areas of agreement and began highlighting them playing down the points of disagreement.

( 1 ) ISLAM
Thus, a sect of ISLAM called `Sufism' had much in common with the BHAKTI (devotion) movement of Hinduism and very many of the Muslim lineage became Bhaktas (devotees) like KABIRDAS (1398 - 1518A.D.) who tried to integrate the two systems. In fact, AKBAR, the great Moghul emperor had his harem filled with Rajput Hindu women, extended meaningful concessions to his Hindu subjects and even sought to start a kind of hotch-potch religion called the Din-ilahi which imbibed the philosophies of not only the conflicting Hinduism and Islam but also many other local variations and interpretations.

Due perhaps to the diametrically opposed practices and life styles of the protagonists of the two antagonistic religions - a real integration or amalgamation (as in the case of Buddhism) never came about. And, even today, the `twine were never to meet'. But, attempts at rapprochement and CO-existence were never given up and the movements of the late 19th and 20th centuries saw both Hindus and Muslims stand shoulder to shoulder in their fight against the new intruders both in point of religion and politics. In 1947, this very politics based on religion led to the formation of a theocratic Muslim fundamentalist state of `Pakistan' carved out from the territory of the undivided India. The strange thing is that even so, the Muslim population in the truncated India is perhaps equal to if not more than the Muslim population in Pakistan itself.

( 2 ) CHRISTIANITY
The British, the French, the Portuguese between them brought with them not only goods for trade but stratagems to `divide and rule' the two great communities by all means and most certainly by impinging on their religious susceptibilities through Christian ideologies. The illiterate masses could be enticed to the fold of Christianity with relative ease by doles and incentives in contrast to the rigors they faced in their `native' religions (Islam had by then become native!). These factors compelled them to embrace Christianity not because of any great conviction of the intrinsic superior values of Christianity over their own but as a matter of convenience. This belabored process of proselytization obviously sprang from a lack of faith on the part of the adherents to their own Christian faith who, therefore, hoped to find a sense of security and safety in sheer numbers by forcing others into the same belief. But Hinduism, however, had never any such pretenses.

In course of time, as many of the rituals of the Roman Catholics resembled those of Hinduism, the resistance remained minimal. By and by, Christianity was compelled to incorporate most of the fasts, feasts and festivals hitherto the exclusive practices of the Hindus (like the car festival etc.) so much that the illiterate masses could not perceive any `great divide' between them. This suited the masses belonging to the non-Brahmin classes because they were well taken care of in their `new found' religion and enjoyed a social status which they had never known before in their original religion.

On the whole, however, in spite of repeated attempts at prosyletization, Christianity never took deep roots in India. Today, they represent only a fraction of the Indian population. It is a stark truth that Christianity failed to carry conviction with the intelligentsia despite the money and zeal the Christian missionaries poured into the efforts for decades on end.

"India found itself conquered politically and ruled over by many foreign invaders - Arabs, Turks, Afgans, Moguls and the British. In spite of the effect of the cultures and religions of these invaders, India has remained essentially Hindu The contributions of centuries had only been superimposed without obliterating the previous records of developments"- 2.

SECTION 5 : CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVE

(1)THE PERIOD OF RENAISSANCE OF THE 19TH AND 20TH CENTURIES
Meanwhile, the Bhakti movement spread throughout India with saints and singers springing up from as far as Gujarat in the West to the Bengal in the far east, from the Northern Himalayas to the Southernmost tip of the subcontinent.

The notable feature of This Bhakti movement is that it was a parallel development in different parts of the country each one based on the local dialect but having as the basic theme of loving devotion to the same personal Gods (Ishta Devatas) of Rama and Krishna. An enormous encyclopedia of Bhakti literature inundated the whole country as nowhere seen in the history of the world. And, Bhakti offered a focal point for reintegration of society and represented a 'quantum leap' for Hinduism.

( 2 ) SOUTH INDIA
An important development took place silently but steadily right from 6 c AD in the far South. The South was not so much agitated by the impact of both internal and external challenges to which the North was exposed directly. Even the empire building urge built into the psyche of the ruling classes (possibly blessed by the `Aswamedha' ( horse sacrifice) and `Rajasuya' (Conquest of kingdoms) Yaga cultures from the Vedic days ) was not felt intensely in the South. The expansionist syndrome through war offensives and peace offensives which characterized the ruling class in the north was not noticed either in intensity or degree by the rulers of the South. Thus, the South remained relatively pacific and unsullied by these moves. This provided an atmosphere conducive to the growth of Bhakti movement right from 6 c AD headed by Vaishnavite Alwars and Saivite Nayanmars - who were from different caste groups.

Thanks to NATHAMUNI (825-918 AD) YAMUNACHARYA (10c AD) and the great RAMANUJACHARYA (1017-1137A.D.) a new emphasis was laid on an older concept enshrined in the CHARAMASLOKA ( the last verse) of the BHAGAVAD GITA viz., PRAPATTI (absolute surrender). This provided the easiest way to achieve MOKSHA without the rigors enjoined by karma, Gnana and even bhakti (through they were not wholly discarded). PRAPATTI was open to any living being without any distinctions of caste, creed, color, sex, cultural, educational or spiritual level of evolution of the individual. Even animals and birds (like GAJENDRA and KAKASURA) are believed to be eligible to attain Moksha through Prapatti (unconditional surrender).

This Prapatti or Saranagati was later expounded in great detail by the versatile genius of SWAMI SRI VEDANTA DESIKA (1268-1369A.D.).

Another revolutionary aspect of this movement was that the works were composed in the Dravidian language TAMIL which could be understood by the common folk of the South and therefore the corpus of literature called the 4000 hymns (Nalayira Divya Prabahdam) came to be regarded as Dravida Veda.

The scholars who were well versed in both the SANSKRIT VEDA and this TAMIL VEDA were respected as `UBAYA VEDANTINS' meaning masters of both the Vedantas - the two fold philosophy blending Sanskrit and Tamil thoughts. This blend found expression in a Tamil script enlarged with highly sanskritized overtones and was called `Mani pravala' meaning stringing together of Mani (sanskrit : gems) with Pravala (Tamil: coral beads). Besides the Vaishnavite Alwars and Acharyas, some of the Saivite Nayanmars enriched the Tamil language with their outpourings of `Bhakti'.

( 3 ) NATIONAL SCENARIO
On the national scene, as we mentioned earlier, it was the late 19th c AD and the 20th c AD that saw a real `renaissance' - if we could use that term.
Great Acharyas like

            SANKARACHARYA (788-820 ),
            RAMANUJACHARYA(1017-1137)
            MADHWACHARYA(1197-1278.).   
Social organizations like 
           ARYA SAMAJ of  DAYANANDA SARASWATI (1824-1883),            
           BRAHMO SAMAJ of RAJA RAM MOHAN ROY ( 1772-1883)
Religious thinkers like
         SRI RAMAKRISHNA PARAMAHAMSA (1836-1886)
         SWAMI VIVEKANANDA (1863-1902)          
Social thinkers like
         AUROBINDO  GHOSE  (1872-1950)
         ANNIE BESANT of THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
Political thinkers like
         MAHATMA GANDHI.(1869-1948)
Educationalists like
       Dr. RABINDRA NATH TAGORE of SHANTI NIKETAN (1861-1941)  who won
Nobel prize for Literature in1913 for his world famous 'GITANJALI'
     - all had their share in reshaping and reforming the thoughts of

NOTES

1. DL, p.187
2. Starr , Chester G. "A history of the Ancient world" (p.29) 3.. Wangu, 'facts on file'.